The Wolof Culture of Resistance to French Domination made Manifest through Amadou Bamba’s Muridiyya

By Naji Mujahid
November 9, 2009
(updated December 9, 2009)
Professor El-Khawas
Introduction to African History



The Wolof can be found all over West Africa, and indeed the world, but they are most prevalent in Senegal, Gambia, and Mauritania. The term “Wolof” refers to the people, as well as the language that comes from the Niger-Congo language family Atlantic branch. There is no certainty about their origin, but some believe that they are the result of westward migration by the Songhay, or perhaps that they are a mixture of surrounding ethnic groups. Their recorded history begins with their contact with Europeans over 500 years ago, particularly the Portuguese, and later the French. This paper will focus on their history and culture through the various stages of their political development and resistance to French Colonialism, up to the present day. Particular focus will be given to the Islamic aspect of the culture, including the lasting effects of the Muridiyyah Movement. Furthermore, it will briefly discuss the region of West Africa to give a more robust understanding of the Wolof people.

To speak of the history of any ethnic group in West Africa, it is important to mention the Empires of Mali and Songhay. These two great African kingdoms left an indelible mark on the region. As those empires rose and fell by the 17th century, the Wolof Empire lasted from 1360 to 1890. The Empire of Mali began in the year 1235 as the result of a coup led by Sundiata Keita to depose of the tyrant King Sumanguru. After that he unified the Malinka Kingdoms in the area. This story can be found in the traditional folk-tale “The Epic of Sundiata” (Niane 2006). Mali would give birth to one of the most notable figures in African history, Mansa Musa, who was the 10th ruler of the empire and the grandson of Sundiata’s half-brother. Mali was also responsible for the great center of learning in Timbuktu.

The Empire of Mali was somewhat tumultuous through the centuries, up until its demise in the 17th century. There were several fights for succession between rulers, and at these volatile junctures, subordinate states would break away. Such was the case of the Songhay State, which later grew into the Songhay Empire that lasted from 1340-1592 and eventually eclipsed the Mali Empire in size, riches, and influence.

That story began with the city of Gao that was occupied and inhabited by the Songhay people in the 8th or 9th Century. Since that time it was a major trading center in the region and it is, presumably, for this reason that Mansa Musa brought it under his control. This combination had the effect of Gao growing in influence and power and eventually they were able to successfully refuse paying taxes to the Mansa. Soon they became independent and then developed empirical aspirations. Led by Sunni Ali, this was the genesis of the Songhay Empire(Davidson 1992, pgs. 103-104).

Another state that was once controlled by the Empire of Mali, but broke away when it had the chance, was the state of Dyolof, which birthed the Wolof Empire. The Wolof Empire was never as big as the aforementioned empires. It consisted of the five provinces of Sine, Cayor, Walo, Baol, and Djolof, which were all concentrated side by side in what is now the northwestern part of Senegal. At times they were unified and at others they fought (Wolfe n.d.).

There was another dynasty that left a lasting impression on the western part of the continent and that was the Almoravid Dynasty. The Almoravids (Moors) were primarily on the northwestern part of the continent in what is now Morocco and Western Sahara. They also spread into Spain. They ventured as far south as Senegal in the 11th century and though the dynasty only lasted until 1147, the legacy of Islam that they left in the region lives on. In fact, Senegal is a 94% Muslim country (CIA World Factbook 2005).

The term ‘Wolof’ used to represent an ethnic group, comes from the language –Wolof- that they speak. Wolof comes from the West Atlantic sub-family of the Niger-Congo language branch (Wolfe n.d.). The Wolof are, historically, a people given to agriculture and trade. Unfortunately, there is a limit to how much we can glean from the history of the Wolof people before their contact with the European. This is true of many ancient African societies and peoples. The Wolof first encountered Portuguese explorers/merchants in the 15th century. This was a pivotal era in African history. Europeans, such as the English, Dutch, and French were popping up all over the coasts in search of trading partners for slaves, fabrics, gold, ivory, and animal hides. Two of the main things that they had to offer were horses and firearms. The Sene-Gambia region became a lucrative place for many of the things they sought --- especially slaves (Klein 1990, pgs. 243-244).

It was here, a few kilometers of off the coasts that the infamous fort on Goree Island was erected and where “the door of no return” is located. The legends of the island have taken on, somewhat of, a life of their own. The degree to which Goree Island operated as a major slave depot is a subject for debate (Encyclopaedia Brittanica 2009).

The slave trade developed as an economic enterprise facilitated by European exploration on the African continent and the colonization of the Western Hemisphere commonly referred to as “The New World”. The conquest of the Americas created a need for labor on the plantations to harvest a variety of crops. In the Caribbean, or West Indies, and South America the most notable crop was sugar. Slavery was not new to the peoples of West Africa, however, the scale and motivation was vastly different in the European context. For the Europeans, it had become an economic venture, for the Africans it was mainly political. People were enslaved as a result of military conquest and wars. Rather than kill or settle the captives (prisoners of war) they were sold. This culture was subsequently exploited by the Europeans and they eventually found willing trading partners with their African counterparts.

According to Sylviane Diouf in her book “Servants of Allah: African Muslims Enslaved in the Americas”, the initial incursion into Senegal by the Portuguese was by Dinis Dias in 1444. At that time he kidnapped four Africans and came back for more a year later. His second kidnapping didn’t go as smoothly and several of his sailors were killed and left behind. This led to the realization that simple raids would not be effective. In turn, they utilized diplomacy and developed trade relationships with the coastal kingdoms in 1448.

This phenomenon soon produced a revolution within the European framework of slavery. Europeans that once enslaved other Europeans began to capture, buy, or sell Africans exclusively. Slavery was now based on color. Initially, the Africans, who were predominantly Muslim, were first transported to the Iberian Peninsula for purposes of forced conversion. The Spanish and the Portuguese had just relieved themselves domination by the Moors, so they were very keen to avoid introducing Muslims to the New World for fear that it would, among other things, interfere with their missionary work and possibly create a recipe for rebellion (Diouf 1998, pg. 147).

They were right; and in 1522 the Wolof led the first recorded slave uprising in the “New World”. This precipitated a royal decree, on May 11, 1526 that “specifically forbade” the importation of Wolofs and several other groups, all of them Muslim. It would not be the first or last piece of legislation of its kind. The British and the French did not share the same historical link to the Muslims that the Portuguese and the Spanish did and, therefore, they did not have the same anxieties about the Muslims. They continued to import them, as did some Spanish and Portuguese merchants in disregard for the law (Diouf 1998, pgs. 145-146).

By the 17th century the British and French were fierce rivals in, what would become, the “scramble for Africa” and they both had developed an interest in the Sene-Gambia region. Eventually the British gained colonial control over Gambia and the French controlled Senegal from the late 19th century until their Independence in 1960. Centuries before colonization the Wolof had been in contact with Islam, as evident in the aforementioned slave rebellions in the West, however, as an ethnic group they did not become overwhelmingly Muslim until the late 19th Century, during the colonial period. Lucy Behrmen wrote of this and described the rapid conversion and adherence to the teachings of various “Muslim Brotherhoods” that developed during this period in opposition to the French and according to her, “The brotherhoods appeared as dynamic movements, symbolizing the social and political protest of the followers which they attracted” (Behrman 1968, pg. 60).

There were several brotherhoods that had developed and spread throughout the Maghreb and Sahel regions, such as the Qadiriyya and Tijanniya. These brotherhoods were founded by Holymen known as Marabouts or Sheikhs. Traditionally these Marabouts who are studied and learned (some are even believed to be magical) were not necessarily affiliated with any organization. It was the Almoravid and Almohad Movements that absorbed them and created the precedent that the Marabouts no longer acted independently (Behrmann 1968). However, this
would create a new dynamic that the Marabouts also became political leaders and as such, the colonial powers, in this case the French, were aware of the threat that they posed.

During the 1890s, a popular Marabout had gained a reputation and amassed

a large following, Sheikh Amadou Bamba of the Qadiriyya. Eventully, Bamba broke

from his ties with the Qadiriyya Brotherhood and founded his own, the Muridiyya.

Cheikh Anta Babou writes (Babou 2003, pgs. 310-311),

“the organization has experienced a continuing growth of its followers and an increasing cultural, political and economic influence in Senegal. The Murids have shown a remarkable ability to adapt to changing contexts and environments and to preserve their cohesion and continuity across space, time and significant social change. The Murid Muslim brotherhood is the most influential religious institution in Senegal”.

During this time period, civil wars had continued to flare as a result of the aftermath of the slave trade. Aristocratic families and Islamic reformers vied with each other for power, control, and influence. Also at this time, the French had begun cultivating
relationships with local chiefs. Amadou Bamba rejected all of the former’s claims to authority. In fact, when once summoned to appear before the French governor, Bamba uttered a phrase that became popular at the time and has lived on, “God alone is King” (Glover 2007, pg. 97).

The French immediately recognized Bamba’s potential for leadership and before he could start any further trouble they exiled him, twice, once in1895 and again 1897, he did not return until 1912. This determination was also “combined with French fear about controlling the critical peanut basin” (Robinson 1999, pg. 194). It is not known for sure whether or not Bamba even had any plans for political power, but sometimes history chooses our fates for us. The climate of the times and the needs of the people commandeered the Muridiyya and forced Amadou Bamba into his destiny. During his exile, Bamba wrote and corresponded with his family about the trials that he faced. The period of his exile, rather than force him into oblivion by his absence, had a contrary effect. In fact, Bamba became legendary; truly a mythical character. Upon his return, he was greeted by multitudes of followers. Through the work of his followers and family, his organization had grown exponentially (Robinson 1991, pgs. 163-164).

I would like to further elaborate on who the Marabouts, Islamic Saints, were in a religious sense. Amber Gemmeke defines the Marabouts as “experts in esoteric Islamic knowledge” (Gemmeke 2009, pg. 128), in other words, ‘Sufi’ masters. The ‘Muslim brotherhoods’, because of their religious orientation are sometimes referred to as ‘Sufi brotherhoods’. Sufism is also commonly referred to as Islamic mysticism. It is characterized by self-concentration and discipline; purification of the soul. Most Sufis believe that, once this process is cultivated to a high level, spiritual union with the divine (Allah) can take place. Another characteristic of Sufism is the necessary relationship between student and teacher, a discipleship of service, learning, and obedience. Certainly this latter characteristic precipitated the growth of Sufi orders in the Maghreb and Sahel regions. The role of the Muslim brotherhoods or Sufi Orders has maintained as central facet of life in Senegal to the present day.

Eventually, the relationship between the French and the Murides would develop from one of antagonism to one of cooperation and accommodation.

The accommodation permitted the marabouts and brotherhoods to develop considerable autonomy in the religious, economic and social spheres while surrendering the political and administrative domain to the French. Of all these 'paths to accommodation' between Muslim societies and French colonial authorities, the one followed by Amadu Bamba Mbacke and the Murid movement is ostensibly the longest, the hardest, the most complete, and the most enduring. (Robinson 1999, pg. 193)

At this time, in 1912, the Muridiyya had a membership of approximately 70,000 (Babou 2003, pg. 312). It continued to grow and became one of the most formidable economic, social, and political forces in Senegal. This growth was made possible by the Murides ability to make the most of their displacement by the French. They organized themselves to be able to settle in the Fulani area of the region and become agricultural workers in groundnut cultivation. Their control over this particular cash crop and the political power that their sheer numbers represented became a key for their survival and growth. Interesting in this, is the transformation of the Wolof social structure which was stratified on class lines to becoming much more homogenous (Gellner 1973, pg. 205).

…..all those who were considered outcasts in the Wolof society and the
new colonial system found shelter in the Mouride brotherhood,
notably, descendents of royal families, ex ceddos [royal slaves], and low cast
members of the society. Mouridism was a refuge for the “wretched
of the earth” and a hope for a society administered by a
foreign power whose project was to disintegrate all traditional
structures. Mouridism became the place where the community was
reconstructed and their cultural pride boosted (Thiam 2005)

The present day role of Islam in Senegal amongst the Wolof, is reflective of its historical role within their society. To this day, the vast majority of them belong to one of the three Sufi Muslim brotherhoods, most predominantly the Muridiyya or Tijaniyya. The Muride’s base is in Touba, Sengal, a city founded by Amadou Bamba and is where he is buried. The name of the city is an Arabic word literally meaning “felicity” and is also, according to Muslim tradition, the name of a special tree in paradise (Ross 1995, pg. 227). It is a Holy City and the site of a yearly ‘Muridic’ pilgrimage known as the ‘Grand Magal’. The city is somewhat of a phenomenon in that it maintains autonomy from the Senegalese government. It is responsible for all of the functions normally reserved for the government such as education, health, and public works. It is amazingly successful and provides a working model as an example of an alternative to the Western model of government and administration (Thiam 2005).

The Murides in Senegal while representing 1/3 of the population, account for 2/3 of the wealth. This is owed, no doubt, to the culture of hard work that developed in the wake of French Colonialism of the country (Thiam 2005). One of the prominent “lieutenants” of Amadou Bamba was Ibrahima Fall who promoted hard work and industriousness as a show of adoration for the Marabout and dedication to God. This labor movement was referred to by Neil Savishinsky as “the Baye Fall branch of Mouridism”(Savishinsky 1994, pg. 64). Charlotte Pezeril wrote in her submission to the European Conference on African Studies in 2007 , “His path is seen as complementary with the Murid one: “Cheikh Amadou Bamba is the spiritual, Cheikh Ibra Fall is the material”.

Today, while Senegal is experiencing tough economic depression, and an extraordinarily high rate of joblessness, Mouridism is spreading like wildfire. Anytime people’s existence is threatened, anytime their survival is in question, there are mass conversions to Mouridism. As it did at the end of the 19th century, Mouridism functions, today, as an answer to people’s existential questions and a refuge for all those whose survival is endangered by the existing social and economic system. Although during the beginning of the colonial system it was a reaction to an invading power, Mouridism functions as an alternative to the economic and social chaos unleashed by the structural adjustment policies of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the twin heirs of the former colonialists. It should be understood that Mouridism is not only a safe haven, it is also an example of a different socio-economic system that promises a new society. (Thiam2005)

The above quote encapsulates ‘Muridism’ as a socio-economic, cultural, and political force today. In the same article, Cheikh Thiam describes the Muride development of popular culture through literature and art. The literature is, known as Wolofal (Wolof language written with Arabic alphabet) and its necessity was derived from the need to resist French cultural domination and separate Arabism from Islam. The Muride visual art’s true value is its ability to interact with the people as an inspiration and promotion of self-determination; it “functions as a rejuvenation of hope in the heart of the ordinary citizen” (Thiam 2005).

Another feature of contemporary Muride-Wolof culture, Muridism, is the ideology of the Talibee. Presumably from the Arabic word Talib, meaning student, a talibee can be considered somewhat of a revolutionary and a proud proponent of Mouride-Wolof culture. They view Muridism as superior to the imposed French culture and recognize that while other opponents of French domination were killed or cowed, Sheikh Amadou Bamba returned and triumphed, not only by resisting the French, but also by being able to offer an alternative to the people. Therefore, the position of a Talibee is that “Muridism is a social revolution, an uprising against the French colonizer, and a cultural project that aimed at challenging the doctrine of French cultural supremacy imposed by the French colonial system through its policies of assimilation” (Thiam 2005).

All of this illustrates a culture among the Wolof people of Senegal that developed as a result of a history that is shared between many of the peoples that populate West Africa; a history of European incursion motivated by the pursuit of resources. There have been many resistance movements that mounted against these attacks and the results have varied. In Senegal, and as with any society, the contemporary culture cannot be separated or understood without the backdrop of the past and what the Muride culture offers to the observer, is an example of a successful defense against the social, political, economic, and cultural impositions of an outside force.




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